Scientific References

The following peer-reviewed studies and academic sources support the key scientific claims made in this presentation. References are organized by topic for ease of review.

Prefrontal Cortex Development & Adult Brain Maturation

[1] Arain, M., Haque, M., Johal, L., Mathur, P., Nel, W., Rais, A., Sandhu, R., & Sharma, S. (2013). Maturation of the adolescent brain. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 9, 449–461. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3621648/

[2] Petanjek, Z., Judaš, M., Šimić, G., Rašin, M. R., Uylings, H. B., Rakic, P., & Kostović, I. (2011). Extraordinary neoteny of synaptic spines in the human prefrontal cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(32), 13281–13286. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1105108108

[3] Rosch, K. S., & Mostofsky, S. (2019). Development of the Frontal Lobe. In Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Vol. 163, 351–367. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804281-6.00019-7

[4] Somerville, L. H. (2016). Searching for Signatures of Brain Maturity: What Are We Searching For? Neuron, 92(6), 1164–1167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.10.059

Working Memory & the Prefrontal Cortex

[5] Funahashi, S. (2017). Working Memory in the Prefrontal Cortex. Brain Sciences, 7(5), 49. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5447931/

[6] Bhattacharya, S., Brincat, S. L., Lundqvist, M., & Miller, E. K. (2022). Traveling waves in the prefrontal cortex during working memory. PLOS Computational Biology, 18(1), e1009827. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009827

[7] Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(11), 417–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2

[8] Lundqvist, M., Rose, J., Herman, P., Brincat, S. L., Buschman, T. J., & Miller, E. K. (2016). Gamma and Beta Bursts Underlie Working Memory. Neuron, 90(1), 152–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.02.028

[9] Chai, W. J., Abd Hamid, A. I., & Abdullah, J. M. (2018). Working Memory From the Psychological and Neurosciences Perspectives: A Review. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 401. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00401

Method of Loci (Memory Palace Technique)

[10] Dresler, M., Shirer, W. R., Konrad, B. N., Müller, N. C. J., Wagner, I. C., Fernández, G., Czisch, M., & Greicius, M. D. (2017). Mnemonic Training Reshapes Brain Networks to Support Superior Memory. Neuron, 93(5), 1227–1235.e6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.02.003

[11] Wagner, I. C., Konrad, B. N., Schuster, P., Weisig, S., Repantis, D., Ohla, K., Kühn, S., Fernández, G., & Dresler, M. (2021). Durable memories and efficient neural coding through mnemonic training using the method of loci. Science Advances, 7(10), eabc7606. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7929507/

[12] Maguire, E. A., Valentine, E. R., Wilding, J. M., & Kapur, N. (2003). Routes to remembering: the brains behind superior memory. Nature Neuroscience, 6(1), 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn988

[13] Legge, E. L. G., Madan, C. R., Ng, E. T., & Caplan, J. B. (2012). Building a memory palace in minutes: Equivalent memory performance using virtual versus conventional environments with the Method of Loci. Acta Psychologica, 141(3), 380–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.09.002

[14] Qureshi, A., Rizvi, F., Syed, A., Shahid, A., & Manzoor, H. (2014). The method of loci as a mnemonic device to facilitate learning in endocrinology leads to improvement in student performance as measured by assessments. Advances in Physiology Education, 38(2), 140–144. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4056179/

[15] Yates, F. A. (1966). The Art of Memory. University of Chicago Press.

Spatial Memory & Navigation

[16] O'Keefe, J., & Nadel, L. (1978). The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map. Oxford University Press.

[17] Maguire, E. A., Gadian, D. G., Johnsrude, I. S., Good, C. D., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Frith, C. D. (2000). Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(8), 4398–4403. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.070039597

[18] Konishi, K., & Bherer, L. (2014). Spatial navigational strategies correlate with gray matter in the hippocampus of healthy older adults tested in a virtual maze. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 6, 28. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2014.00028

Levels of Processing & Semantic Encoding

[19] Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X

[20] Craik, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104(3), 268–294. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.104.3.268

[21] Galli, G. (2014). What makes deeply encoded items memorable? Insights into the levels of processing framework from neuroimaging and neuromodulation. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 5, 61. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4035598/

[22] Otten, L. J., Henson, R. N. A., & Rugg, M. D. (2001). Differential effects of semantic processing on memory encoding. Human Brain Mapping, 14(3), 148–162. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.1048

Multi-Sensory Learning & Dual Coding Theory

[23] Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach. Oxford University Press.

[24] Shams, L., & Seitz, A. R. (2008). Benefits of multisensory learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(11), 411–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.07.006

[25] Mayer, R. E. (2002). Multimedia learning. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 41, 85–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(02)80005-6

[26] Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6

Spaced Repetition & Memory Consolidation

[27] Ebbinghaus, H. (1885/1913). Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. Teachers College, Columbia University.

[28] Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354–380. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354

[29] Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval practice for learning. Science, 319(5865), 966–968. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1152408

[30] Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003

Adult Learning & Neuroplasticity

[31] Knowles, M. S. (1980). The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. Cambridge Adult Education.

[32] Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Prentice Hall.

[33] Draganski, B., Gaser, C., Busch, V., Schuierer, G., Bogdahn, U., & May, A. (2004). Changes in grey matter induced by training. Nature, 427, 311–312. https://doi.org/10.1038/427311a

[34] Park, D. C., & Bischof, G. N. (2013). The aging mind: neuroplasticity in response to cognitive training. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 15(1), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2013.15.1/dpark

Chunking & Information Processing

[35] Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043158

[36] Gobet, F., Lane, P. C. R., Croker, S., Cheng, P. C.-H., Jones, G., Oliver, I., & Pine, J. M. (2001). Chunking mechanisms in human learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5(6), 236–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01662-4

Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory (General)

[37] Squire, L. R. (2004). Memory systems of the brain: A brief history and current perspective. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 82(3), 171–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2004.06.005

[38] Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization of Memory (pp. 381–403). Academic Press.

[39] Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 2, pp. 89–195). Academic Press.

[40] D'Esposito, M. (2007). From cognitive to neural models of working memory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 362(1481), 761–772. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2086